One thing that I love about bash is that there is never a shortage of new tips and tricks to learn. I have been using bash for over 10 years now and just stumbled on this little trick.
This one (as the title implies) allows you to quickly substitute a string into the previous command and rerun the command with the substitution.
Quick substitution is officially part of the Bash Event Designators mechanism and is a great way to fix a typo from a previous command. Below is an example.
# Simple example to highlight substitutions
echo foo
# This will replace the string "foo" with "bar" and rerun the last command
^foo^bar
This shorthand notation is great for most use cases, with the exception of needing to replace multiple instances of a given string. Luckily that is easily addressed with the Event Designators expanded substitution syntax, shown below.
# This will substitute ALL occurrences of foo in the previous command
!!:gs/foo/bar/
# Slightly different syntax allows you to do the same thing in ZSH
^foo^bar^:G
The syntax is slightly more complicated in the first example but should be familiar enough to anyone that has used sed and/or vim substitutions, and the second example is almost identical to the shorthand substitution.
fc
Taking things one step further, we can actually edit the previous command to fix anything more than a typo of different argument. fc is actually a bash builtin function so it is available almost everywhere.
fc is especially useful for dealing with very long, complicated commands.
# Oops, we messed this up
echo fobarr | grep bar
# To fix it, just open the above in your default editor
fc
# when you write and quit the file it will put the contents into your current command
There are many great tutorials available so I would recommend looking around to see all the options and get more ideas.
The landscape of command line driver text manipulation and processing tools is somewhat large and confusing, with more and more tools emerging all the time. Because I am having trouble keeping them all in my head, I decided to make a little reference guide to help remember which tool to choose for the correct task at hand.
Reach for jq first when you need to do any kind of processing with JSON files.
From the website, “jq is like sed for JSON data – you can use it to slice and filter and map and transform structured data with the same ease that sed, awk, grep and friends let you play with text.”
sudo apt-get install jq
# or
brew install jq
# consume json and output as unchanged json
curl 'https://api.github.com/repos/stedolan/jq/commits?per_page=5' | jq '.'
This project looks very interesting and is a refreshing thing to see in the Linux world. JC is basically a way to create structured objects (ala PowerShell) as JSON output from running various Linux commands. And from the GitHub repo, ” This tool serializes the output of popular gnu linux command line tools and file types to structured JSON output. This allows piping of output to tools like jq”.
Transforming data into structured objects can massively simplify interacting with them by pairing the output with jq to interact with.
This tool can be confusing because there is both a Python version and a Go version. On top of that, the Python version includes its own version of xq, which is different than the standalone xq tool.
The main differences between the Python and Go version is that the Python version can deal with both yaml and xml while the Go version is meant to be used as a command line tool to deal with only yaml.
From the website, oq is “A performant, portable jq wrapper thats facilitates the consumption and output of formats other than JSON; using jq filters to transform the data”.
The claim to fame that oq has is that it is very similar to jq but works better with other data formats, including xml and yaml. For example, you can read in some xml (and others), apply some filters, and output to yaml (and others). This flexibility makes oq a good option if you need to deal with different data formats oustide of JSON.
snap install oq
# or
brew tap blacksmoke16/tap && brew install oq
# consume json and output xml
echo '{"name": "Jim"}' | oq -o xml .
From the Github page, “Apply XPath expressions to XML, like jq does for JSONPath and JSON”.
The coolest use case I have found for xq so far is taking in an xml file and outputting it into a json file, which surprising I haven’t found another tool that can do this (oc authors say there are plans to do this in the future). The simplest example is to curl a page, pipe it through xq to change it to json and then pipe it again and use jq to manipulate the data.
This is a newer tool, with a slightly different approach aimed at helping to automate configurations, especially for things like Kubernetes but should work with most structured data.
This tool works with json, yaml and hcl and can be used in conjunction with Javascript, making it an interesting option.
curl -Lo jk https://github.com/jkcfg/jk/releases/download/0.3.1/jk-darwin-amd64
chmod +x jk
sudo mv jk /usr/local/bin/
// alice.js
const alice = {
name: 'Alice',
beverage: 'Club-Mate',
monitors: 2,
languages: [
'python',
'haskell',
'c++',
'68k assembly', // Alice is cool like that!
],
};
// Instruct to write the alice object as a YAML file.
export default [
{ value: alice, file: `developers/${alice.name.toLowerCase()}.yaml` },
];
jk generate -v alice.js
This is basically a simplified templating language that only intends to deal with yaml. The approach the authors took was to create yaml templates and sanbdox/embed Python into the templating engine, allowing users to call on the power of Python inside of their templates.
The easiest way to play around with ytt if you don’t want to clone the repo is to try out the online playground.
From the GitHub page, ” Configula is a configuration generation language and processor. It’s goal is to make the programmatic definition of declarative configuration easy and intuitive”.
Similar in some ways to ytt, but instead of embedding Python into the yaml template file, you create a .py file and then render the py file into yaml using the Configula command line tool.
git clone https://github.com/brendandburns/configula
cd configula
# tiny.py
# Define a YAML object where the 'foo' field has the value of evaluating 1 + 2 (e.g. 3)
my_obj = foo: !~ 1 + 2
my_obj.render()
./configula examples/tiny.py
Jsonnet bills itself as a “data templating language for app and tool developers”. This tool was originally created by folks working at Google, and has been around for quite some time now. For some reason always seems to fly underneath the radar but it is super powerful.
This tool is a superset of JSON and allows you to add conditionals, loops and other functions available as part of its standard library. Jsonnet can render itself into json and yaml output.
For (pretty much) everything else, there is Sed. Sed, short for stream editor, has been around forever and is basically a Swiss army knife for manipulating text, and if you have been using *nix for any length of time you have more than likely come across this tool before. From their docs, Sed is “a stream editor is used to perform basic text transformations on an input stream”.
The odds are good that Sed will likely do what you’re looking for if you can’t use one of the aforementioned tools.
If you have spent any time managing infrastructure you have probably run into the issue of needing to set environment variables in order to connect to various resources.
For example, the AWS Terraform provider allows you to automatically source local environment variables, which solves the issue of placing secrets in places they should be, ie. writing the keys into configurations or state. This use case is pretty straight forward, you can just set the environment variables once and everything will be able to connect.
The problem arises when environments need to be changed frequently or other configurations requiring secrets or tokens to connect to other resources need to be changed.
There are various tools available to solve the issue of managing and storing secrets for connecting to AWS including aws-vault and aws-env. The main issue is that these tools are opinionated and only work with AWS and aren’t designed to work with Terraform.
Of course this problem isn’t specific to Terraform, but the solution I have discovered using ondir is generic enough that it can be applied to Terraform as well as any other task that involves setting up environment variables or running shell commands whenever a specific directory is changed to or left.
With that said, the ondir tool in combination with Terragrunt, gives you a set of tools that vastly improves the Terraform experience. There is a lot of Terragrunt reference material already so I won’t discuss it much here. The real power of my solution comes from combining ondir with Terragrunt to enhance how you use Terraform.
Note: Before getting into more details of ondir, it is worth mentioning that there are several other similar tools, the most well known of which is called direnv. Direnv provides a few other features and a nice library for completing actions so it is definitely work checking out if you are not looking for a solution specific to Terraform/Terragrunt. Other tools in the space include autoenv, smartcd and a few others.
Direnv should technically work to solve the problem, but when managing and maintaining large infrastructures, I have found it to be more tedious and cumbersome to manage.
Ondir
From the Github page, Ondir is a small program to automate tasks specific to certain directories, so isn’t designed specifically to set environment variables but makes a perfect fit doing so.
Ondir leverages an ~/.ondirrc file to configure the tool. This file basically consists of enter and leave directives for performing actions when specific directories are entered and left. To make this tool useful with Terragrunt, I have setup a simple example below for exporting a database password given a path that gets switched into (if the path ends in stage/database), which is defined in the ~/.ondirrc file. One very nice feature of ondir is that it allows regular expressions to be used to define the enter/leave directives, which makes allows for complex paths to be defined.
With this logic, the shell should automatically export a database password for Terraform to use whenever you switch to the directory ending in stage/database.
cd ~/project/path/to/stage/database
# Check your environment for the variable
env | grep TF_VAR
TF_VAR_db_password=mypassword
cd ~
# When you leave the directory it should get unset
env | grep TF_VAR
In a slightly more complicated example, you may have a databases.sh script containing more logic for setting up or exporting variables or otherwise setting up environments.
#!/usr/bin/env bash
db_env=$(pwd | awk -F '/' '{print $(NF-1)"/"$NF}')
if [[ "$db_env" == "stage/database" ]]; then
# do stuff
export TF_VAR_db_password="mypassword"
else [[ "$db_env" == "prod/database" ]]; then
# do other stuff
export TF_VAR_db_password="myotherpassword"
fi
Conclusion
That’s pretty much. Now you can automatically set environment variables for Terraform to use, based on the directory we are currently and no longer need to worry about setting and unsetting environment variables manually.
I HIGHLY recommend checking out direnv as well. It offers slightly different functionality, and some neat features which in some cases may actually be better for specific tasks than ondir. For example, the direnv stdlib has some great helpers to help configure environments cleanly.
For me, using ondir for managing my Terragrunt configs and direnv for managing other projects makes the most sense.
Kubernetes API changes are coming up and I wanted to make a quick blog post to highlight what this means and show a few of things I have discovered to deal with the changes.
First, there have been some relevant announcements regarding the changes and deprecations recently. The first being the API Depractions in 1.16 announcement, which describes the changes to the API and some of the things to look at and do to fix problems
The next post is the Kubernetes 1.16 release announcement, which contains a section “Significant Changes to the Kubernetes API” that references the deprecation post.
Another excellent resource for learning about how Kubernetes deprecations work is the API deprecation documentation, highlighted in the deprecation post, but not widely shared.
In my opinion, the Kubernetes community really dropped the ball in terms of communicating these changes and missed an opportunity to describe and discuss the problems that these changes will create. I understand that the community is gigantic and it would be impossible to cover every case, but to me, the few blog posts describing the changes and not much other official communication or guides for how to handle and fix the impending problems is a little bit underwhelming.
The average user probably doesn’t pay attention to these blog posts, and there are a lot of old Helm charts out in the wild still, so I’m confident that the incoming changes will create headaches and table flips when people start upgrading. As an example, if you have an old API defined and running in a pre 1.16 cluster, and upgrade without fixing the API version first, APPS IN YOUR CLUSTER WILL BREAK. The good news is that new clusters won’t allow the old API versions, making errors easier to see and deal with.
Testing for and fixing deprecated APIs
With that mini rant out of the way, there is a simple but effective way to test your existing configurations for API compatibility.
Conftest is a nice little tool that helps write tests against structured configuration data, using the Rego language using Open Policy Agent (OPA). Conftest works with many file types including JSON, TOML and HCL, which makes it a great choice for testing a variety of different configurations, but is especially useful for testing Kubernetes YAML configurations.
wget https://github.com/instrumenta/conftest/releases/download/v0.15.0/conftest_0.15.0_Linux_x86_64.tar.gz
tar xzf conftest_0.15.0_Linux_x86_64.tar.gz
sudo mv conftest /usr/local/bin
Then we can use the handy policy provided by the deprek8 repo to validate the API versions.
curl https://raw.githubusercontent.com/naquada/deprek8/master/policy/deprek8.rego > deprek8.rego
conftest test -p deprek8.rego sample/manifest.yaml
Here’s what a FAIL condition might look like according to what is defined in the rego policy file for an outdated API version.
FAIL - sample/manifest.yaml - Deployment/my-deployment: API extensions/v1beta1 for Deployment is no longer served by default, use apps/v1 instead.
The Rego policy is what actually defines the behavior that Conftest will display and as you can see, it found an issue with the Deployment object defined in the test manifest.
Below is the Rego policy that causes Conftest to spit out the FAILure message. The syntax is clean and easy to follow, so writing and adjusting policies is easy.
_deny = msg {
resources := ["DaemonSet", "Deployment", "ReplicaSet"]
input.apiVersion == "extensions/v1beta1"
input.kind == resources[_]
msg := sprintf("%s/%s: API extensions/v1beta1 for %s is no longer served by default, use apps/v1 instead.", [input.kind, input.metadata.name, input.kind])
}
Once you know what is wrong with the configuration, you can use the kubectl convert subcommand to fix up the existing deprecated API objects. Again, attempting to create objects using deprecated APIs in 1.16 will be rejected automatically by Kubernetes, so you will only need to deal with converting existing objects in old clusters being upgraded.
From the above error, we know the object type (Deployment) and the version (extensions/v1beta1). With this information we can run the convert command to fix the object.
# General syntax
kubectl convert -f <file> --output-version <group>/<version>
# The --output-version flag allows specifying the API version to upgrade to
kubectl convert -f sample/manifest.yaml --output-version apps/v1
# Omitting the --output-version flag will convert to the latest version
kubectl convert -f sample/manifest.yaml
After the existing objects have been converted and any manifest files have been updated you should be safe to upgrade Kubernetes.
Bonus
There was a fantastic episode of TGIK awhile back called Kubernetes API Removal and You that describes in great detail what all of the deprections mean and how to fix them – definitely worth a watch if you have the time.
Conclusion
OPA and testing configurations using tools like conftest and Rego policies is a great way to harden and help standardize configurations. Taken a step further, these configuration testing tools can be extended to test all sorts of other things.
Conftest looks especially promising because of the number of file types that it understands. There is a lot of potential here for doing things like unit testing Kubernetes configuration files and other things like Terraform configs.
I haven’t written any Rego policies yet but the language looks pretty straight forward and easy to deal with. I think that as configurations continue to evolve, tools like Conftest (OPA), Kubeval and Kustomize will gain more traction and help simplify some of the complexities of Kubernetes.
One thing I have run into recently and have been thinking about a little bit lately, is a simple way to hide environment variables that contain sensitive information. For example, when working in a local environment, if you need access to a secret like an oauth token or some authentication method to an API, the first inclination is usually to just hard code the secret contents into your local bash/zsh profile so that it can be read anytime you need access to it. This method obviously will work but if the filesystem itself isn’t encrypted, the secret can easily be leaked and for a small amount of effort I believe I have found an effective way of shrinking the visibility of these secrets.
Inspired by the aws-vault tool which is a simple but secure way of storing local AWS credentials in environment variables using a local password store, in this post I will show you a quick and dirty way to add an extra layer of security to your (other) local environment by injecting sensitive secrets stored in an encrypted location (password store) into your local terminal. This method works for both OSX and Linux and is just a few lines of configuration and examples for both OSes are shown below.
In OSX the keychain is a good starting place for storing and retrieving secrets and in Linux the combination of GPG and the standard unix password manager “pass” work well together. Pass also works on OSX if you aren’t a fan of keychain.
Below are steps for storing and retrieving local secrets using the Linux pass tool. There are installation instructions and full documentation for how to use the tool in the link above. It should also be noted that the system needs to have GPG installed in order to write and read secrets.
One you have GPG configured, create the password store. I am skipping most of the GPG configuration because there is a lot to know, the command below should be enough to get things started. If you already have GPG set up and configured you can skip the setup.
Set up GPG and pass.
gpg2 --full-gen-key # follow prompts to create a gpg store with defaults
pass init <email> # use the same email address used with gpg
pass git init # optionally set pass up as a git repo
Pass allows for hierarchies but in the example we are just going to put the secret at the top level. The command above will open the default editor. After closing the editor, the password will be written to an encrypted file in ~/.password-store. Once you have added the password you can show the contents of the newly added secret.
To read a secret into the terminal.
#pass show <secret>
pass show mysecret
You can also quickly list all of your secrets.
pass ls
Now that we have a created secret, we can write a little bash function to pull out the contents of the password and export them as an environment variable when the shell gets sourced. Put the following snippet into your ~/.bashrc, ~/.zshrc or ~/.bashprofile to read secrets.
get_password () {
pass show "$1"
}
A similar result can be achieved in OSX using the “security” command line tool.
In your shell configuration file you can simply export the result of calling the get_password() function into an environment variable.
export MYSECRET="$(get_password mysecret)"
Source the shell profile to pickup the new changes. After that, you should now see the contents of the secret inside an environment variable in your terminal.
source ~/.bashrc
env | grep MYSECRET
Conclusion
Obviously this isn’t a perfect way to secure your environment since the secret is available to anyone who is able to connect to this user so make sure you practice good security in as many other ways as possible.
What this method does do though is cuts down the amount of sensitive information that can be gleaned from a user account by ensuring that shell secrets are encrypted at rest and unavailable as clear text.
