DevOps

Immutable WordPress Installations with Kubernetes

Josh Reichardt 3 Comments
wordpress on kubernetes

In this post I will describe some of the interesting discoveries I have made for a recent side project I have been working on, which include a few nice discoveries to automate and manage WordPress deployments with Kubernetes.

Automating WordPress

I am very happy with the patterns that have emerged from this project. One thing that I have always struggled with (I’m sure others have as well) in the world of WP has been finding a good way to create completely reproducible and immutable code and configurations. For example, managing plugins and themes has been a painful experience because WP was designed back in a time before configuration as code and infrastructure as code. Due to this different paradigm, WP is usually stood up once, then managed via it

Tools have evolved since then and a perfect example of one of the bridges between the old and new way is the wp-cli. The wp-cli is basically a way to automate all kinds of things you would otherwise do in the UI. For example, wp-cli provides a way to manage plugin and themes, which as I mentioned has been notoriously difficult to do in the past.

The next step forward is the combination of a tool called bedrock and its accompanying way of modifying it and building your own Docker image. The roots/bedrock method provides the wp-cli in the build scripts so if needed, you can automate tasks using extra entrypoint scripts and/or wp-cli commands, which is just a nice extra touch and shows that the maintainers of the project are putting a lot of effort into it.

A few other bells and whistles include a way to build custom plugins into Docker images for portability rather than relying on some external persistent storage solution which can quickly add overhead and complexity to a project, as well as modern tools like PHP Composer and Packagist which provide a way to install packages (Composer) and a way to manage WP plugins via the Composer package manager (packagist).

Sidenote

There are several other ways of deploying WP into Kubernetes, unfortunately most of these methods do not address multitenancy. If multitenancy is needed, a much more complicated approach is needed involving either NFS or some other many -> many volume mapping.

Deploying with Kubernetes

The tricky part to all of this is the fact that I was unable to find any examples of others using Kubernetes to deploy bedrock managed Docker containers. There is a docker-compose.yaml file in the repo that works perfectly well, but the next step beyond that doesn’t seem to be a topic that has been covered much.

Luckily it is mostly straight forward to bring the docker-compose configuration into Kubernetes, there are just a few minor adjustments that need to be made. The below link should provide the basic scaffolding needed to bring bedrock into a Kubernetes cluster. This method will even expose a way to create and manage WP multisite, another notoriously difficult aspect of WP to manage.

https://gist.github.com/jmreicha/aae3ce024c13be1c561189946f1a0efc

There are a couple of things to note with this configuration. You will need build/maintain your own Docker image based off the roots/bedrock repo linked above. You will also need to have some knowledge of Kubernetes and a working Kubernetes cluster in place. The configuration will require certificates, and DNS so cert-manager and external-dns will most likely need to be deployed into the cluster.

Finally, in the configuration the password, domain (example.com), environment variables for configuring the database and Docker image will need to be updated to reflect your own environment. This method assumes that the WordPress database has already been split out to another location, so will require the Kubernetes cluster to be able to communicate with wherever the database is hosted.

To see some of the magic, change the number of replicas in the Kubernetes manifest configuration from 1 to 2, and you should be able to see a new, completely identical container come up with all the correct configurations and code and start taking traffic.

Conclusion

Switching to the immutable infrastructure approach with WP nets a big win. By adopting these new methods and workflows you can control everything with code, which removes the need for manually managing WP instances and instead allows you to create workflows and pipelines to do all of the heavy lifting.

These benefits include much more visibility in controlling changes, because now Git becomes the central source of truth which allows you to get a better picture of the what, when and why than any other system I have found. This new paradigm also enables the use of Continuous Integration as it is intended – the automatic builds and deploys because of Docker and Kubernetes integrations producing immutable artifacts (Docker), and deployments (Kubernetes manifests) create a clean and simple way to manage the aspects of running the WordPress site.

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Idempotent Shell Scripts with Terraform

Josh Reichardt 2 Comments

One challenge when dealing with Terraform is keeping things clean and repeatable. My current favorite approach to accomplish this task using shell scripts is by using a combination of null_resources and triggers to control when scripts should be updated. These controls combined with Terraform provisioners and template_files provide a nice flexible way to deal with otherwise potentially messy scripts.

I like to provide more than one trigger so that they can be recomputed when either a variable that gets passed into the script changes, or, the script itself changes. This trick is handy when you need to bend Terraform into doing something that it usually doesn’t handle, like some startup or bootstrap process.

Below is the full example with templated scripts and triggers in Terraform v0.11. The same logic should also work with Terraform v0.12 with minimal changes. 

data "template_file" "cool_script" {
  template = "${file("${path.module}/script.sh")}"

  vars {
    my_cool_var = "${var.my_cool_var}"
  }
}

resource "null_resource" "script" {

  # Trigger when the script when variables change
  triggers = {
    my_trigger = "${var.my_cool_var}"
    script_sha = "${sha256(file("${path.module}/script.sh"))}"
  }

  provisioner "local-exec" {
    command   = "${data.template_file.cool_script.rendered}"
    interpreter = ["/bin/bash", "-c"]
  }
}

You can provide as many variables to the template_file as the script needs and any time those get updated, the null_resource will pick these changes up and update/rerun your script for you. Notice that the provisioner in the null_resource is basically set up to call bash against the rendered script that we created, using the values in the vars.

If you call the script again, nothing should change because we already computed the SHA of the rendered script and told Terraform to keep track of that state. The below example is a simple way for telling Terraform to keep track of changes to the script/template.

script_sha = "${sha256(file("${path.module}/script.sh"))}"

Once the script is updated, the next time the script gets called, its values and output should update accordingly. Likewise, since we are also using a var as a trigger, when that changes the script will also be updated.

Terraform is flexible enough to allow us to do things like this because often times there are situations and edge cases where Terraform can’t really perform some actions. The above example is a common workaround for provisioning resources that either don’t have an API that Terraform can tap into, or are just tasks that are only handled via some startup or bootstrap script/process.

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Untangling CLI Text Processing Tools

Josh Reichardt 2 Comments

Update (2/7/2020): Added jc

The landscape of command line driver text manipulation and processing tools is somewhat large and confusing, with more and more tools emerging all the time. Because I am having trouble keeping them all in my head, I decided to make a little reference guide to help remember which tool to choose for the correct task at hand.

  • jq
  • jc
  • yq (both python and go versions)
  • oq
  • xq
  • hq
  • jk
  • ytt
  • configula
  • jsonnet
  • sed (for everything else)

jq

Reach for jq first when you need to do any kind of processing with JSON files.

From the website, “jq is like sed for JSON data – you can use it to slice and filter and map and transform structured data with the same ease that sed, awk, grep and friends let you play with text.”

sudo apt-get install jq
# or
brew install jq

# consume json and output as unchanged json
curl 'https://api.github.com/repos/stedolan/jq/commits?per_page=5' | jq '.'

jc

This project looks very interesting and is a refreshing thing to see in the Linux world. JC is basically a way to create structured objects (ala PowerShell) as JSON output from running various Linux commands. And from the GitHub repo, ” This tool serializes the output of popular gnu linux command line tools and file types to structured JSON output. This allows piping of output to tools like jq”.

Transforming data into structured objects can massively simplify interacting with them by pairing the output with jq to interact with.

pip3 install --upgrade jc
df | jc --df -p
[
  {
    "filesystem": "devtmpfs",
    "1k_blocks": 1918816,
    "used": 0,
    "available": 1918816,
    "use_percent": 0,
    "mounted_on": "/dev"
  },
  {
    "filesystem": "tmpfs",
    "1k_blocks": 1930664,
    "used": 0,
    "available": 1930664,
    "use_percent": 0,
    "mounted_on": "/dev/shm"
  },
  ...
]

yq (Python) (Go)

This tool can be confusing because there is both a Python version and a Go version. On top of that, the Python version includes its own version of xq, which is different than the standalone xq tool.

The main differences between the Python and Go version is that the Python version can deal with both yaml and xml while the Go version is meant to be used as a command line tool to deal with only yaml.

pip install yq
cat input.yml | yq -y .foo.bar

oq

From the website, oq is “A performant, portable jq wrapper thats facilitates the consumption and output of formats other than JSON; using jq filters to transform the data”.

The claim to fame that oq has is that it is very similar to jq but works better with other data formats, including xml and yaml. For example, you can read in some xml (and others), apply some filters, and output to yaml (and others). This flexibility makes oq a good option if you need to deal with different data formats oustide of JSON.

snap install oq
# or
brew tap blacksmoke16/tap && brew install oq

# consume json and output xml
echo '{"name": "Jim"}' | oq -o xml .

xq

From the Github page, “Apply XPath expressions to XML, like jq does for JSONPath and JSON”.

The coolest use case I have found for xq so far is taking in an xml file and outputting it into a json file, which surprising I haven’t found another tool that can do this (oc authors say there are plans to do this in the future). The simplest example is to curl a page, pipe it through xq to change it to json and then pipe it again and use jq to manipulate the data.

pip install yq
curl -s https://mysite.xml | xq .

hq

Like xq (and jq) but for html parsing. This tool is handy for manipulating html in the same way you would xml or json.

pip install hq
cat /path/to/file.html | hq '`Hello, ${/html/head/title}!`'

jk

This is a newer tool, with a slightly different approach aimed at helping to automate configurations, especially for things like Kubernetes but should work with most structured data.

This tool works with json, yaml and hcl and can be used in conjunction with Javascript, making it an interesting option.

curl -Lo jk https://github.com/jkcfg/jk/releases/download/0.3.1/jk-darwin-amd64
chmod +x jk
sudo mv jk /usr/local/bin/

// alice.js
const alice = {
  name: 'Alice',
  beverage: 'Club-Mate',
  monitors: 2,
  languages: [
    'python',
    'haskell',
    'c++',
    '68k assembly', // Alice is cool like that!
  ],
};

// Instruct to write the alice object as a YAML file.
export default [
  { value: alice, file: `developers/${alice.name.toLowerCase()}.yaml` },
];

jk generate -v alice.js

ytt

This is basically a simplified templating language that only intends to deal with yaml. The approach the authors took was to create yaml templates and sanbdox/embed Python into the templating engine, allowing users to call on the power of Python inside of their templates.

The easiest way to play around with ytt if you don’t want to clone the repo is to try out the online playground.

curl -Lo ytt https://github.com/k14s/ytt/releases/download/v0.25.0/ytt-darwin-amd64
chmod +x ytt
sudo mv ytt /usr/local/bin/

https://github.com/k14s/ytt.git && cd ytt
ytt -f examples/playground/example-demo/

configula

From the GitHub page, ” Configula is a configuration generation language and processor. It’s goal is to make the programmatic definition of declarative configuration easy and intuitive”.

Similar in some ways to ytt, but instead of embedding Python into the yaml template file, you create a .py file and then render the py file into yaml using the Configula command line tool.

git clone https://github.com/brendandburns/configula
cd configula

# tiny.py
# Define a YAML object where the 'foo' field has the value of evaluating 1 + 2 (e.g. 3)
my_obj = foo: !~ 1 + 2
my_obj.render()

./configula examples/tiny.py

jsonnet

Jsonnet bills itself as a “data templating language for app and tool developers”. This tool was originally created by folks working at Google, and has been around for quite some time now. For some reason always seems to fly underneath the radar but it is super powerful.

This tool is a superset of JSON and allows you to add conditionals, loops and other functions available as part of its standard library. Jsonnet can render itself into json and yaml output.

pip install jsonnet
# or
brew install jsonnet

// example.jsonnet
{
  person1: {
    name: "Alice",
    welcome: "Hello " + self.name + "!",
  },
  person2: self.person1 { name: "Bob" },
}

jsonnet -S example.jsonnet

sed

For (pretty much) everything else, there is Sed. Sed, short for stream editor, has been around forever and is basically a Swiss army knife for manipulating text, and if you have been using *nix for any length of time you have more than likely come across this tool before. From their docs, Sed is “a stream editor is used to perform basic text transformations on an input stream”.

The odds are good that Sed will likely do what you’re looking for if you can’t use one of the aforementioned tools.

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Testing for Deprecated Kubernetes APIs

Josh Reichardt 1 Comment

Kubernetes API changes are coming up and I wanted to make a quick blog post to highlight what this means and show a few of things I have discovered to deal with the changes.

First, there have been some relevant announcements regarding the changes and deprecations recently. The first being the API Depractions in 1.16 announcement, which describes the changes to the API and some of the things to look at and do to fix problems

The next post is the Kubernetes 1.16 release announcement, which contains a section “Significant Changes to the Kubernetes API” that references the deprecation post.

Another excellent resource for learning about how Kubernetes deprecations work is the API deprecation documentation, highlighted in the deprecation post, but not widely shared.

In my opinion, the Kubernetes community really dropped the ball in terms of communicating these changes and missed an opportunity to describe and discuss the problems that these changes will create. I understand that the community is gigantic and it would be impossible to cover every case, but to me, the few blog posts describing the changes and not much other official communication or guides for how to handle and fix the impending problems is a little bit underwhelming.

The average user probably doesn’t pay attention to these blog posts, and there are a lot of old Helm charts out in the wild still, so I’m confident that the incoming changes will create headaches and table flips when people start upgrading. As an example, if you have an old API defined and running in a pre 1.16 cluster, and upgrade without fixing the API version first, APPS IN YOUR CLUSTER WILL BREAK. The good news is that new clusters won’t allow the old API versions, making errors easier to see and deal with.

Testing for and fixing deprecated APIs

With that mini rant out of the way, there is a simple but effective way to test your existing configurations for API compatibility.

Conftest is a nice little tool that helps write tests against structured configuration data, using the Rego language using Open Policy Agent (OPA). Conftest works with many file types including JSON, TOML and HCL, which makes it a great choice for testing a variety of different configurations, but is especially useful for testing Kubernetes YAML configurations.

To get started, install conftest.

wget https://github.com/instrumenta/conftest/releases/download/v0.15.0/conftest_0.15.0_Linux_x86_64.tar.gz
tar xzf conftest_0.15.0_Linux_x86_64.tar.gz
sudo mv conftest /usr/local/bin

Then we can use the handy policy provided by the deprek8 repo to validate the API versions.

curl https://raw.githubusercontent.com/naquada/deprek8/master/policy/deprek8.rego > deprek8.rego
conftest test -p deprek8.rego sample/manifest.yaml

Here’s what a FAIL condition might look like according to what is defined in the rego policy file for an outdated API version.

FAIL - sample/manifest.yaml - Deployment/my-deployment: API extensions/v1beta1 for Deployment is no longer served by default, use apps/v1 instead.

The Rego policy is what actually defines the behavior that Conftest will display and as you can see, it found an issue with the Deployment object defined in the test manifest.

Below is the Rego policy that causes Conftest to spit out the FAILure message. The syntax is clean and easy to follow, so writing and adjusting policies is easy.

_deny = msg {
  resources := ["DaemonSet", "Deployment", "ReplicaSet"]
  input.apiVersion == "extensions/v1beta1"
  input.kind == resources[_]
  msg := sprintf("%s/%s: API extensions/v1beta1 for %s is no longer served by default, use apps/v1 instead.", [input.kind, input.metadata.name, input.kind])
}

Once you know what is wrong with the configuration, you can use the kubectl convert subcommand to fix up the existing deprecated API objects. Again, attempting to create objects using deprecated APIs in 1.16 will be rejected automatically by Kubernetes, so you will only need to deal with converting existing objects in old clusters being upgraded.

From the above error, we know the object type (Deployment) and the version (extensions/v1beta1). With this information we can run the convert command to fix the object.

# General syntax
kubectl convert -f <file> --output-version <group>/<version>

# The --output-version flag allows specifying the API version to upgrade to 
kubectl convert -f sample/manifest.yaml  --output-version apps/v1

# Omitting the --output-version flag will convert to the latest version
kubectl convert -f sample/manifest.yaml

After the existing objects have been converted and any manifest files have been updated you should be safe to upgrade Kubernetes.

Bonus

There was a fantastic episode of TGIK awhile back called Kubernetes API Removal and You that describes in great detail what all of the deprections mean and how to fix them – definitely worth a watch if you have the time.

Conclusion

OPA and testing configurations using tools like conftest and Rego policies is a great way to harden and help standardize configurations. Taken a step further, these configuration testing tools can be extended to test all sorts of other things.

Conftest looks especially promising because of the number of file types that it understands. There is a lot of potential here for doing things like unit testing Kubernetes configuration files and other things like Terraform configs.

I haven’t written any Rego policies yet but the language looks pretty straight forward and easy to deal with. I think that as configurations continue to evolve, tools like Conftest (OPA), Kubeval and Kustomize will gain more traction and help simplify some of the complexities of Kubernetes.

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Quickly securing local secrets

Josh Reichardt 1 Comment

One thing I have run into recently and have been thinking about a little bit lately, is a simple way to hide environment variables that contain sensitive information. For example, when working in a local environment, if you need access to a secret like an oauth token or some authentication method to an API, the first inclination is usually to just hard code the secret contents into your local bash/zsh profile so that it can be read anytime you need access to it. This method obviously will work but if the filesystem itself isn’t encrypted, the secret can easily be leaked and for a small amount of effort I believe I have found an effective way of shrinking the visibility of these secrets.

Inspired by the aws-vault tool which is a simple but secure way of storing local AWS credentials in environment variables using a local password store, in this post I will show you a quick and dirty way to add an extra layer of security to your (other) local environment by injecting sensitive secrets stored in an encrypted location (password store) into your local terminal. This method works for both OSX and Linux and is just a few lines of configuration and examples for both OSes are shown below.

In OSX the keychain is a good starting place for storing and retrieving secrets and in Linux the combination of GPG and the standard unix password manager “pass” work well together. Pass also works on OSX if you aren’t a fan of keychain.

Below are steps for storing and retrieving local secrets using the Linux pass tool. There are installation instructions and full documentation for how to use the tool in the link above. It should also be noted that the system needs to have GPG installed in order to write and read secrets.

One you have GPG configured, create the password store. I am skipping most of the GPG configuration because there is a lot to know, the command below should be enough to get things started. If you already have GPG set up and configured you can skip the setup.

Set up GPG and pass.

gpg2 --full-gen-key # follow prompts to create a gpg store with defaults
pass init <email> # use the same email address used with gpg
pass git init # optionally set pass up as a git repo

To create/edit a secret.

#pass insert/edit <secret>
pass insert mysecret
pass edit mysecret

Pass allows for hierarchies but in the example we are just going to put the secret at the top level. The command above will open the default editor. After closing the editor, the password will be written to an encrypted file in ~/.password-store. Once you have added the password you can show the contents of the newly added secret.

To read a secret into the terminal.

#pass show <secret>
pass show mysecret

You can also quickly list all of your secrets.

pass ls

Now that we have a created secret, we can write a little bash function to pull out the contents of the password and export them as an environment variable when the shell gets sourced. Put the following snippet into your ~/.bashrc, ~/.zshrc or ~/.bashprofile to read secrets.

get_password () {
  pass show "$1"
}

A similar result can be achieved in OSX using the “security” command line tool.

get_password () {
  security find-generic-password -ga "$1" -w
}

In your shell configuration file you can simply export the result of calling the get_password() function into an environment variable.

export MYSECRET="$(get_password mysecret)"

Source the shell profile to pickup the new changes. After that, you should now see the contents of the secret inside an environment variable in your terminal.

source ~/.bashrc
env | grep MYSECRET

Conclusion

Obviously this isn’t a perfect way to secure your environment since the secret is available to anyone who is able to connect to this user so make sure you practice good security in as many other ways as possible.

What this method does do though is cuts down the amount of sensitive information that can be gleaned from a user account by ensuring that shell secrets are encrypted at rest and unavailable as clear text.

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